.lU 



LURAI> -and: GRA DE D SCI i OO i ,S 

By 

ARNOLD GKSKLL. M, I). 
SetlQKDl Psychologist for iht KtHie boyrc! oi t;(rj-.;nioi! 




1918 



Sta i e Board o! Edutati o ' 



What Can the Teacher Do 
for the Deficient Child? 



A MANUAL FOR TEACHERS 
IN RURAL AND GRADED SCHOOLS 

By 
ARNOLD GESELL, M. D. 

School Psychologist for the State board of education 




1918 



State Board of Education 

Hartford, Connecticut 



v^'o. 



Members 

of the 

State Board of Education 

1918 



Marcus H Holcomb Governor 

Clifford B Wilson Lieut-Governor 

Schuyler IMerritt . 

Edward D Robbins . 

Charles F Smith 

Howell Cheney 

Dr John G Stanton 



Southington 
Bridgeport 
Stamtord 
New Haven 
New Britain 
South ISIanchester 
New London 



office 

Room 42 State Capitol Hartford 

D. Of B. 
JUL 1 S918 



May 1918 



CONNECTICUT SCHOOL DOCUMENT 

No. 5-1918 
WHOLE NUMBER 425 



WHAT CAN THE TEACHER DO 

FOR 

THE DEFICIENT CHILD? 



A brief manual of expkuiations and suggestions concerning 
extremely backward children in rural, village and city schools, 
who cannot have the benefit of training in a special class. 

/;/ tJu'cc parts 

I A primer of questions and answers on mental deficiency 

II Illustrative case studies of deficient school children 

III Suggestions for a special program for the deficient child 
child 



Bv 



Arnold Gesell M D 
School Psychologist for 
the State Board vf Education 
of Connecticut 



PART I 



A primer of questions and answers concerning the problem 
of mental deficiency 



Does the regular teacher have any responsibility in the problem 
of mental deficiency? 

All students of the subject agree that mental deficiency is 
one of the greatest of our social problems. They also agree that 
the problem is so complex and many sided that there is no one 
simple remedy for it. The doctors alone cannot solve this prob- 
lem; the psychologists alone cannot solve it; state institutions 
and special class teachers cannot meet the whole situation. Many 
minds and man^ hands must combine in lending assistance to the 
deficient school child. The regular teacher has a part to play. 

Some one asks, Why not exclude all mentally deficient chil- 
dren from the public schools ? The answer is, It cannot, at least 
now, be done. We do not have the legal machinery nor the public 
opinion to make it at all practical. There are a few exceptions, 
when for peculiar reasons a child is an intolerable burden in 
school, or a positive menace to other children. In such rare cases 
exclusion is the only measure. 

For a long time to come, then, there will be feebleminded 
children in the rural schools, and in the regular classes of village 
schools and in many of the regular classes of our city schools. 
There is no reason for believing or even hoping that all these 
abnormally backward children will be conveniently excluded 
from the schools. There is no reason for thinking that they will 
all be assigned to special state institutions. In the great majority 
of cases mentally deficient children are destined to be reared in 
the communities where their normal brothers and sisters are 
attending school. 

Let us admit that a special class, small in numbers, with a 
special teacher, and a special program and equipment all adapted 
to laggard minds, is the ideal arrangement for subnormal chil- 
dren. Let us also admit, and just as freely, that we cannot ex- 
pect too much of a regular teacher. Her responsibilities He 
chieflv with the normal children, and she is even open to criticism 
if she gives a very disproportionate amount of attention to the 
deficient child. What we are pleading for is that this child de- 
serves at least a little more than the average share of attention, 
and that this attention should be wisely directed. Our aim, in 
this booklet of explanations and suggestions, is to help the regu- 



lar teacher to meet her responsibihty in a situation which she is 
bound to face. 

And what is the best way to help her? We hope it is, by 
making her natural interest an intelligent one ; by indicating what 
can and what cannot be done, so that she will not do herself an 
injustice with standards either too high or too low, as the case 
may be. ^^'e know only too well the aggravations and difficulties 
which often lie in her way; but we are also sure that it is a real, 
human problem, and that there are rewards in meeting it. 

IVJiat is mental deficiency? 

This, naturally, is the first question. Mental deficiency is' 
something more than ordinary backwardness in studies ; and it 
is something different. Ordinar}' backwardness is comparatively 
not very serious. A merely backward pupil will not graduate at 
the average age ; but there is no reason to believe that he will not 
succeed in life. Ordinary backwardness is usually curable. It is 
due to causes which can be remedied or removed. It is due to 
irregular attendance, to poor nutrition, to adenoids, to haphazard 
schooling, poor teaching, defective vision, lack of familiarity with 
our language, and a long list of other causes which retard but 
do not altogether destroy normal development. 

Now, a mentally deficient child does not even have the 
possibilities of normal development. His retardation is perma- 
nent, and it is incurable. He may have poor eyesight and many 
other defects, but they are not the cause of his deficiency. In 
about eight cases out of ten his backwardness is inborn ; it is an 
hereditary handicap. In the other two or three cases out of the 
ten it has been an injury from disease or some other cause which 
so damaged his immature brain that he can not enjoy normal 
mental development. Like a plant that has been stunted, he fails 
to reach a full mental stature. He, therefore, shows a certain 
lack of mental vigor, and always a kind of immaturity. Un- 
fortunately we cannot in any way remove such a fundamental 
weakness and incompleteness. It is because the brain itself is 
incompletely developed that we cannot make him normal. We 
must admit, then, that mental deficiency is an extreme, constitu- 
tional form of backwardness which dates from birth or early 
infancy, and which is so serious that it will prevent the child 



from taking his place either in school, or in the world, on a par 
with his normal fellows. 

JVhat arc the causes of mental deficiency? 

As already suggested, they are chiefly hereditary. In about 
75% of the cases the mental deficiency traces back to a defect in 
one or two of the parental germ cells from which the individual 
was developed. The chief cause of feeblemindedness is feeble- 
mindedness. If both parents are feebleminded the children are 
bound to be so; if only one parent is feebleminded some of the 
children or grandchildren are likely to be so. Sometimes, even 
in hereditary feeblemindedness there is no defect apparent in the 
father or mother. There is, however, a mental or nervous defect 
of some kind somewhere in the family strain, which accounts 
for the condition. How important alcohol and' syphilis are in the 
production of inherited feeblemindedness is not fully known. 

In about one case out of four, mental deficiency is due to 
some damage to the child's organism, either in the prenatal 
period, during birth, or in infancy. A direct injury to the brain 
by prolonged pressure or by a fall may be the cause, though 
these cases are not numerous. In other instances the poison of 
severe infectious diseases may irreparably damage the growing 
brain cells causing mental deficiency. Or the brain and its mem- 
branes (the meninges) may be alTected by a disease like cerebro- 
spinal meningitis. Finally, if a child has frequent epileptic con- 
vulsions in his early years the after effect may be mental de- 
ficiency. 

In the great majority of cases feeblemindedness is due to 
ancestral factors, and is transmissable. It is a Y)\iy and a menace 
that so many feebleminded have the opportunity to marry and 
thus pass on the tradition. 

Docs the iiieiitally deficient child look sahnonnal? 

Sometimes ; but, by no means necessarily. In countenance, 
facial expression, and ordinary demeanor, he often is indistin- 
giiishable from norn'ial children. It is rather dangerous to judge 
too much by physical appearance. A child may look "queer" or 
defective and vet be perfectly normal. Alisshapen head, small 



head girth, over-large or deformed ears, poorly formed nose, 
open mouth, coarse flabby^skin, thick, stumpy fingers, "peculiar" 
hands, weak hand grasp, generally stupid expression, — these and 
other physical signs have importance only when they are com- 
bined with mental inferiority. It is much safer and more 
scientific for the teacher to pay attention to how a child uses his 
body and his hands, how he walks, climbs stairs, handles things ; 
how he plays and works. For, after all, it is his mental char- 
acteristics, and his behavior, that count. 

JVhat is the chief weakness of the deficient child? 

First and foremost, he is deficient in intelligence. This is 
his fundamental defect. By mental deficiency we mean deficiency 
of intelligence. Intelligence is the most practical aspect of the 
mind. It is the capacity to profit by experience and the power to 
make adaptations to new situations as they arise, or even before 
they arise. It is that mental part of us wdiich means preparedness 
to meet the demands of life. And this is just what the mentally 
deficient child lacks. To be sure, he has some intelligence; but 
he does not have a normal amount. He is not strong minded 
like his normal companions; he is so feeble of mind that. he 
falls far behind in the race. He falls behind his grade in school. 
When he grows up he keeps on falling behind. ITe will stumble 
into difficulties; he may fail altogether in the struggle for exist- 
ence as he has failed in a struggle for education. A man with 
a weak heart cannot climb a steep hill. In the feebleminded it is 
the power of mental adaptation which is weak ; and they cannot 
surmount the obstacles which the requirements of ordinary com- 
munity life present. They do not have the clearness of percep- 
tion, nor the mental vigor to grasp and handle even the ordinary 
problems of human existence. They are at the mercy of events. 
Normal minded people are at least partial masters of their fate. 

This has all been well said by Miss Mary Dendy of Man- 
chester, England. "To all of us birth happens and death 
happens. Those of us who are sane knozv, whatever we may 
think, that between birth and death we have the power, to a great 
extent, of guiding our own lives ; we have the choice between 
good and evil. To these less happy brethren of ours (the feeble- 



minded) not only do birth and death happen, but everything that 
comes between ; their hves are one long happening." 

It is a deficiency of intelligence which makes their lives 
"one long happening." 

Can intcU'ujoicc he measured? 

Every person who is at all observant of human nature makes 
estimates of intelligence. He classifies his friends, — and his 
enemies, — into various groups : — stupid, clever, mediocre, etc. 
The school teacher estimates her children in a similar manner ; 
and roughly separates them into two or three divisions : the 
bright, the average, the dull. There is, however, one great source 
of error in estimating the intelligence of children. They are con- 
stantly growing, and it is dif^cult to keep definite standards in 
mind. A boy of twelve may be doing excellent work in the fifth 
grade; the teacher calls him bright. Another boy of ten may be 
doing only passable work in the same grade, and the teacher calls 
him average or dull. As a matter of fact the ten year old boy 
may really be brighter than the older boy, if we take actual age 
into account. Ability to do school work is a very proper measure 
of intelligence ; but the most important factor is the age of the 
child. And we cannot make an adequate estimate of intelligence 
until we take age into full consideration. 

Can we do this with anything like accurate precision? The 
great French psychologist, Alfred Binet, has shown us that we 
can. After years of patient experimentation on his own chil- 
dren, and on normal and deficient school children in Paris, he 
devised a graded series of mental problems, or tests, which he 
justly called a measuring scale of intelligence. No one pretends 
that this scale has the accuracy of a clinical thermometer which 
reads to a tertth of a degree, but it is a scale because it is made 
up of standardized units. Judiciously applied, this scale or one 
of its improved revisions, furnishes us a rating of intelligence. 

For example it was found after numerous comparative try- 
outs on children of various ages, that at different levels of mental 
development children respond dififerently to a picture. A child 
of three will ordinarily look at a picture, and simply enumerate 
all the objects in it: "man; river; boat, etc." On the average, 
say seven cases out of ten, a child of seven will describe the 



picture : "The man is paddling. The boat is going down the 
river." At the age of twelve the average normal response is an 
interpretation of the picture. "They are fleeing from danger, 
etc." This is the principle of a graded intelligence scale. Five or 
six tests for' each age from three to twelve or sixteen, furnish 
the basis of measurement. What is normal or characteristic of a 
given age being known, we can determine roughly wdiether a 
child tests above age, below age or at age ; and we can tell how 
much he deviates. We express his "score" by mental age. He is 
actually eight years old; that is known as his chronological age. 
He tests six years of age by the scale; that is his mental age. 
This mental age gives us some idea of his retardation; but we 
do not get a true conception of his intehigence calibre until we 
compare mental age and chronological age. The ratio between 
the two is the significant thing. This ratio is the intelligence 
index. It is usually called the intelligence quotient (abbreviated, 
I Q) ; because it is derived by dividing the mental age by the 

M A (mental age) 

chronological age. The formula is 10=^.,, , . . . 

° ° ~ C A (chronological age). 

If the numerator and denominator are ec^ual we get unity or 
ioo%, or an I Q of lOO. If the numerator is 2, and the de- 
nominator 3, we get a value below 100, — I Q:=67. If the num- 
erator is 3 and the denominator 2, we get an I O of 150; which 
indicates a very superior intelligence. An I O of 6/ or less, 
however, nearly always means feeblemindedness. If we use the 
•carefully standardized methods of The Stanford Revision of the 
Binet Scale, we may, safely say that the following ratio between 
mental age and chronological age denotes definite mental de- 
ficiency: — 2:t^; 4:6; 6:9; 8:12 ; 10:15. 

JVJiat arc tJic different degrees of intellir/eiicef 

For convenience we may say that there are three grades or 
degrees of intelligence to be found among school children : 
average, superior., inferior; n'ormal, supernormal and subnormal. 
By normal intelligence we mean that ordinary amount of intelli- 
gence which most children have and which insures their ability 
to meet the ordinary demands of life. Such children are neither 
much retarded nor advanced in their schooling. They are neither 
far below or above par. In terms of I Q (intelligence quotient) 



10 



they rank, according to the Stanford-Binet ratings from 90 to 
no. Children with an I Q above no may be regarded as more 
or less superior. Children rating from 90 to 80 are usually dull. 
From 70 to 80 is the region of "borderline deficiency." Some- 
times these children are classifiable as dullards, sometimes as 
mentally deficient (feebleminded). Below 70 points to definite 
feeblemindedness. While the line must not be drawn too sharp 
or too straight, we may regard this as the upper level of sub- 
normal intelligence. 

Mental deficiency or subnormal intelligence difl:ers in grades 
of severity. Three main grades are recognized : low, medium and 
high grade ; idiot, imbecile and moron. The I Q for these classes 
would range between 50 and 70 for moronity; between 20 or 25 
and 50 for imbecility; and below 20 or 25 for idiocy. (Terman) 
The idiot stands at the bottom of the scale. He is often 
utterly helpless, and he very rarely enters a public school, be- 
cause his mental age is less than three years. The Mental De- 
ficiency Law of England defines idiots as "persons so deeply de- 
fective in mind from birth, or from an early age, as to be unable 
to guard themselves against common physical dangers." 

The imbecile stands somewhat higher in the intelligence 
scale. His mental level is between three and seven years. Im- 
becile children sometimes find their way into public schools. The 
Mental Deficiency Law defines imbeciles as "persons in whose 
case there exists from birth or from an early age mental defec- 
tiveness not amounting to idiocy, yet so pronounced that they are 
incapable of managing themselves or their affairs, or, in the case 
of children, of being taught to do so." 

The most important and most numerous group is the moron. 
He stands near the borderline of normality. He often looks 
normal and so we allow him to drift into situations which he 
cannot meet. It is the moron who makes so many problems for 
the schools and for society. The moron mentality ranges in 
terms of intelligence age, from seven to eleven years. The Eng- 
lish legal definition of the moron is as follows: "Persons in 
whose case there exists from birth or from an early age mental 
defectiveness not amounting to imbecility, yet so pronounced that 
they require care, supervision; and control for their own protec- 
tion, or for the protection of others, or, in the case of children, 



11 



that they, by reason of such defectiveness, appear to be perma- 
nently incapable of receiving proper benefit from the instruction 
in ordinary schools." 

Hozv many children arc mentally deficient^ 

Our answer depends, of course, upon the standards which 
we use and how accurately we apply them. Terman has found 
that among looo unselected school children, i% have an I Q of 
70 or less. By this standard it is safe to say that for a large 
number of cases, 1% of the elementary school enrollment is- 
definitely deficient.- Since however many children with an I Q 
of over 70 are deficient when judged by their social and indus- 
trial capabilities, we may possibly be justified in considering the 
proportion as high as 2%. One per cent is at present the least 
disputed figure. 

So far as the teacher is concerned this statistical question 
has no practical importance. The figures hold only for a large 
number of cases, and the distribution of cases in any school 
building or school district will be uneven. For example one rural 
school may not have a single mentally deficient pupil, another 
may have two or three. There are similar variations in graded 
school systems. One building with 500 pupils may have only 
four deficient pupils, another of the same size or even smaller 
may have eight. The third and fourth grades are likely to have 
more than the sixth and seventh, except when the deficient chil- 
dren are promoted by courtesy. 

What is the difference betzueen a dullard and a deficient child? 

It may not be altogether scientific to make a rigid distinc- 
tion between the two. It has been maintained that grades of in- 
telligence fade into each other like day, dusk, dark and dawn ; 
and that it is arbitrary to draw sharp lines between the grades. 
For practical reasons, however, we insist that a clear cut distinc- 
tion should be made between the dullard and the deficient child. 
And the distinction should be made in favor of the dullard. A 
dullard is not a very high grade moron ; he is not a super-moron. 
He is to be regarded as a definitely normal individual, whose 
faculties are simply below the average in quantity but closely 
akin to the average in quality. He is organized along normal 



12 



lines. He may be slow witted ; but he is not weak witted. He 
has considerable mental stamina and stability. When we psycho- 
logically describe him as a low grade normal, we do it in no 
derogatory sense. He may be backward in school ; he may be 
rather obtuse in abstract, academic subjects ; but in his natural 
sphere he succeeds. He makes his way in the world ; because he 
has enough mother wit to do so. This is more than we can say 
of the moron ; for as Tregold has pointed out, even the highest 
grade moron is lacking in "that essential to independent exist- 
ence, common sense." 

A deficient child is so defectively organized that he does not 
promise even the modest success in life which the dullard attains. 
The dullard ])rofits much more from experience, and responds 
much more to i)roper education. 

JJ'liat is the chief cliaractcristic of the iiicnfally dcficioit 

adult? 

The best, brief answer to this question is summed up in 
Dr. Tregold's definition of feeblemindedness. In his words, 
feeblemindedness is "a state of restricted potentiality for, or ar- 
rest of, cerebral development, in consequence of which the per- 
son afifected is incapable at maturity of so adapting himself to 
his environment or to the requirements of the community as to 
maintain existence indei:)endently of external support." 

This definition is well worth mastering. We recommend that 
the teacher memorize it, analyze it and interpret it. Notice that 
the test or criterion of mental deficiency is a social one. A 
feebleminded person cannot become an efficient, responsible 
member of society. He cannot become an independent wage 
earner or a self controlling citizen. A feebleminded man ought 
never to be allowed to try to found a home and rear a family ; 
a feebleminded woman cannot properly manage a home and for 
this reason alone, if for no other, she ought not to become a 
mother of children. She does not possess the mental ability to 
properly bring up children ; and if she did. the cliildren often 
would not have the mentality to properly respond to training. 

The feebleminded are therefore at once mentally deficient 
and socially deficient. They cannot function as normal members 
of society because of subnormal mental endowment. It is not 



13 



perversity, viciousness, or laziness which makes them fail. It is 
a degree or a kind of mental incompetence. It is defective in- 
telligence. 

Jl'liat are tJic social consequences of fechlcinindedncss? 

When feeblemindedness is uncontrolled by society all sorts 
of vocational, economic and moral problems arise. Many of our 
social problems are caused by the vocational inefficiency of the 
feebleminded. Vocational inefficiency shows itself in so-called 
shiftlessness, unemployment, irregular employment, begging, 
vagrancy, pauperism. This does not of course mean to say that 
every pauper is feebleminded. That would be a libel. But it does 
mean that feeblemindedness is an important cause of pauperism 
and indigence. A large portion of those who drift into alms- 
houses, particularly those who are not of advanced age, have 
failed in the struggle for economic existence because of the 
feebleness of their wits. They did not have the mental tenacity 
and good judgment to succeed from day to day, month to month, 
and year to year. For the same reason the feebleminded earn 
subnormal wages at piece work; or are "handed around" from 
job to job without holding any position for a great length of 
time Some become vagrants, ne'er-do-wells; many are wastrels; 
to use an English term. "Good-for-nothing" we often call them. 
As a matter of fact they are good-for-something; but only if we 
put them into suitable surroundings where their weak intelli- 
gence will not be overtaxed. 

The foregoing failures we call economic failures. If the 
same individual fails along legal lines we call it crime, de- 
linquency or vice. Economic failure and moral failure are psy- 
chologically akin. They both may be an expression of mental 
weakness. It takes a reasonable amount of intelligence to recog- 
nize right and wrong, to keep definitely in mind the consequences 
of wrong, and to shape conduct in accordance with the ad- 
vantages of right. For this reason it has been said by high 
authority that every feebleminded person is a j^otential criminal. 
As a matter of fact a remarkably large number of feebleminded 
persons manage to keep out of jail ; but a remarkably large pro- 
portion of those who do not, and who serve long sentences in 
reformatories and 2:)risons are mentally deficient. Easily one out 



14 



of five of the inmates of penetentiaries is feebleniiiKled. Like- 
wise many of the boys and girls who are committed to reform 
schools, particularly among those cases who do cannot be perma- 
nently reformed are definitely deficient, ^^'hen the impossibility 
of reform is dne to mental deficiency, we call the individual a 
defective delinquent. A fraction of the incorrigible or disciplin- 
ary cases among school children are defective delinquents. 

Lack of intelligence may be at the basis of other forms of 
subnormal control, such as alcoholism and sexual immorality. 
Xot all, but, agfain, a considerable percentage of inebriates and 

of prostitutes are feebleminded. 

Is it any wonder that we have so many social problems 
directly due to mental deficiency? ^^'e can only rejoice in the 
good fortime of those cases where a happy combination of favor- 
able circumstances allows the feebleminded person to live a par- 
tially i:seful or at least a harmless life. We wish it were possible 
to always provide the external su])port which their mental fraility 
needs. Perhai)s we some day shall be able to do so, if we begin 
near the bottom and cope with the problem as we find it in our 
public schools. 

Ho-cV does mental deficiency sJioie itself in the school cliildF 

Naturally, the failures of the neglected feebleminded adult 
are foreshadowed in the school life of his childhood. The fail- 
ures in school may not be so glaring because we do not expect 
too much of the immatiu-e and because we naturally protect chil- 
dren. Sometimes it even happens that the optimistic school 
teacher does not recognize the existence of feeblemindedness in 
a pupil ; particularly if the pupil is a docile and agreeable child. 
But if the teacher has a proper appreciation of the fimdamental 
importance of intelligence, she is likely to see the signs of defect 
in the school behavior of a deficient child. 

What are these signs ? Let tts enumerate them, cautioning 
the teacher to use good judgment in interpreting them. 

In the first place a deficient child does not pki}' in a normal 
manner. He never is a leader on the playground ; and often he 
is not even a follower. He prefers to sit by idly, content to watch 
others play; and this, not because he is physicall}- \\'eak, but be- 



15 



cause he is mentally inert. He does not have ordinary, healthy 
play interests ; he is listless ; and if he attempts to play a game 
beyond his mental and moral powers he gets into difficulties ; he 
is not likely to be a popular playmate. There are some children 
of high grade mental defect who manage to play pretty success- 
fully; but even they are usually fond of the simplest games 
only, and they tend to play with companions below their own 
age. 

In work as well as in play the signs of deficiency show 
themselves. If the child is of very low grade intelligence, say 
that of an imbecile, he will not be able to acquire the 3 R's at all. 
His writing will then be mostly scribbles ; he will probably be 
unable to draw a copy of a diamond ; he might after much train- 
ing, learn to recognize a few words, and do a few simple sums. 
But when we recall that it is possible to teach almost as much to 
an "educated horse," it does not follow that he can really read, 
or that he has any comprehension of numbers, beyond a few, 
concrete situations.. 

What can a moron do in ordinary sch'ool zvork? 

While an imbecile is almost entirely incompetent in the 
ordinary school room, a high grade moron may accomplish a 
good deal with the 3 R's. But it will be hard for him to learn. 
By the time he gets to his teens he is usually three years or more 
behind his grade ; and what he does learn he often fails to under- 
stand. In rare cases he may have learned to perfor-m long 
division, but usually his comprehension of arithmetic is far below 
that.- He always has great difficulty with fractions and wnth 
problems requiring reasoning. There is a concrete kind of arith- 
metic, however, in which he feels more at home; and this kind 
only has any value for him. 

A high grade moron may learn to write a simple letter. His 
powers of composition, however, are usually below even that ; 
and he is deficient in matters of punctuation ; sentence structure 
and of course in grammar. His penmanship is likely to be far 
superor to his language power. This is because penmanship is 
merely a motor' habit, while written language makes demands 
upon a higher kind of intelligence. A moron may learn to read ; 
but he acquires the art with difficulty. His reading is always 



16 



likely to be monotonous, and rather slow. \\"hile a normal child 
usually learns to read with some expression and understanding 
the feebleminded child tends merely to call off the separate 
words, and is deticient in reproducing the thought of a selection. 
A moderate ability to read in a child of twelve years or over 
must not, however, be taken as a i)roof that the child is not men- 
tally deficient. If he is seriously retarded in all his school work 
and shows poor judgment and general lack of common sense; he 
may still be feebleminded. 

We must never forget that academic attainments may be 
largely mechanical, and simply due to years of drill, drill, drill. 
For exam])le, I recall a deficient girl about eleven years old, a 
third grade pupil, who could glibly recite the "five table." The 
patient teacher had drilled so hard on that table, that the child 
reproduced it perfectly. But it must have been a phonographic 
kind of reproduction, because when I asked the child, "W'hich 
is niore : five or two?" — she could not answer! 

In history, a mentally deficient pupil ordinarily makes very 
little progress. He may learn a few simple facts, in a somewhat 
parrot fashion, about George Washington, Columbus and Abra- 
ham Lincoln ; but he often gets his historical characters sadly 
mixed. He may say that Columbus was the first president, and if 
you ask him who lived first, Columbus, Lincoln or Washington, 
you cannot be at all certain that you will get a correct answer. 
Though a mentally deficient child may learn simple stories about 
historical men and events, he has a very meagre historical sense. 
The teaching of history to the feebleminded is mainly a waste of 
time, and often an absurd waste. 

The same is true of geograi:)hy. A few barren geographical 
facts the feebleminded pupil can memorize. He may even learn 
to recite after a fashion in a map study lesson. He may point out 
South America, but ask him which is larger, Connecticut, New 
Haven, or America, and you may get a wrong reply. He does 
not grasp relations which are abstract. He often fails to grasp 
concrete relations, when these are beyond the range of his own 
immediate experience. 



17 



What does the deficient school child need most of all? 

Most of all, he needs to be understood. When teachers, 
parents, and elder schoolmates begin to understand him, the 
chances are that he will be made more happy and more useful. 
At least, the teacher who is with him every day can make a 
determined effort to understand him. She can observe his be- 
havior and note his limitations, and get some conception of his 
mentality. Of what value is all our psychology, if we cannot 
use it in order to interpret a feebleminded child? Let the teacher 
once really appreciate the nature of such a child and she will 
soon find some devices by which he can best be treated. The 
teacher can do much to make the lot of the deficient child a more 
comfortable one. She can treat him with such consideration that 
the whole schoolroom will respond to the suggestion. If the child 
is a butt of teasing and other forms of mental cruelty, the teacher 
is the one to change all this for the better. We must all begin to 
look upon the feebleminded more as we look upon the crippled 
and physically infirm. A crippled child is the object of peculiar 
concern and consideration. We do not expect too much of the 
cripple. Least of all do we regard his w^eakness as in any w'ay a 
disgrace. Yet, when it comes to the feebleminded we often 
wrongly attach a stigma to their condition. The rural teacher, 
the village teacher, and in city schools, the principals, can do a 
great deal toward removing this stigma. No teacher or principal 
should tolerate in the vicinity of the school grounds the calling 
of names and the tormenting which are still too commonly the 
lot of the deficient child. By indirect suggestions, and sometimes 
by a little plain talking, the teacher can make the attitude of the 
normal children one of wholesome sympathy and appreciation 
for the subnormal member of the group. If these normal children 
need a little sermon on the subject, why not recall to them the 
kind instincts which they ordinarily display toward the crippled, 
the paralytic and the blind ; and make them realize that the 
feebleminded are in need of the same kindness? 

The solution of the problem of feeblemindedness depends to 
a large extent upon general mutual understanding. It might al- 
most be said that if everybody concerned, really understood the 
feebleminded members of their community, it would be possible 



18 



for a great many of these members to lead a fairly satisfactory 
life outside of an institution. 

The place to begin this policy of mutual understanding is 
right in the schoolroom. Begin it, by not expecting anything of 
the feebleminded child which he is not equal to. Make allow- 
ances for him. If necessary, make a special program for hin;. 
If necessary, give him a special table and a little work bench in 
the corner of the room ; and instead of fearing the consequences 
which such special attention will have upon "the disciidine" of 
the room and upon the regular pupils, enlist the interest and co- 
operation of these pupils in solving the problem. The problem 
is this : How can we keep a feebleminded child in an ordinary 
school room, and Act serve his Ijest interests? He is bound to 
get more than his share of attention in any case. Make the atten- 
tion intelliger.t ; and if the routine is somewhat disturljed the 
educational benefit for the whole group may 1)e all the greater. 

In the lower grade cases, where the child is conspicuously 
below the mental level of his schoolmates, the problem will l)e 
greatly simplified by delegating much of the special work to 
bright monitor pupils. These pupils will take a pride in helping 
the teacher and the child. Make it a famil\- problem; encourage 
cooperation and the subnormal pu[)il instead of being a drag 
upon the room may furnish a real stinudus to the social educa- 
tion of the whole group. Let us so change the situation that the 
deficient child will become an educational asset. This will be for 
his own benefit and for ours. 

JJlio should make tlic dianiiosis of fceblciiiiiidcdiicss.^ 

The teacher should never make an oihcial diagnosis. That 
is the business of a qualified examiner. Should the teacher, 
then, regard every child as normal until she is notified to the 
contrary ? That would be too much to expect. Every intelligent 
teacher is bound to make some kind of judgment in regard to her 
pupils, and sometimes this judgment nu:st amount to a convic- 
tion that a child is definitely feebleminded. When a case is doubt- 
ful it is her duty to suspend her judgment ; but when she has 
ample evidence of real deficiency, such as is descriljed in this 
booklet, it is her dutv to shape her policy with respect to the 
child in accordance with that evidence. In consulting with in- 



19 



telligent parents of the child, she may then, go so far as to say 
something hke this : "In my opinion the child is seriously back- 
ward, he will never accomplish what the average pupil accom- 
plishes, and he should have special attention during his school 
life and after he leaves school." This is going far enough; she 
should not vuidertake to make a formal diagnosis, and she is not 
called upon to use the term feeblemindedness. The most con- 
venient term to use, if any be necessary, is "deficient^' This is 
sufficiently accurate, but it is not a harsh designation, because 
teachers often use a similar expression with normal children 
who are reported "deficient in arithmetic," "deficient in reading," 
etc. We recommend then, that instead of using such unreserved 
terms as feebleminded, abnormal, degenerate or imbecile, teach- 
ers will simply say "a deficient child" or "a seriously backward 
child." 

Can teachers he of any assistance to parents of a deficient cliild? 

They can when the parents do not appreciate their problem. 
When the child has been definitely diagnosed as mentally de- 
ficient, or when the evidence points decisively to mental de- 
ficiency, the teacher and supervisor can be of real assistance to 
the parents by making suggestions concerning the treatment of 
the deficient child at home. Parents should realize that this 
home-training is often very important. So far as possible, the 
child should learn in his home the fundamental personal habits 
that have to do with his cleanliness, neatness, and every day de- 
portment. Does he know how to wash himself? Does he comb 
his own hair ? Can he tie his shoestrings ? Does he know how 
and when to use his handkerchief? Some of the simplest things 
are often neglected. Families fall into the habit of helping the 
deficient child too much. By patient drill he must be taught 
those personal habits which will make him less burdensome 
and more attractive to others. Above all the child should be 
taught how to work with his hands, he should learn to assist in 
the labor of the home, the farm, the shop. So far as practical, 
he should have definite chores. A deficient child can often be 
trained into a considerable degree of usefulness. The one thing 
that can not be taught him is good judgment ; and it is for this 
reason the parents must never expect too much of him. 

20 



Tact is always necessary in discussing such questions, but 
when the teacher is sure of her ground, a positive use of tact is 
surely much better than a policy of silence or neglect. As a 
matter of justice to the child, everything should he done to pro- 
tect his future. 

How should parents be advised in regard to that future ? So 
much depends upon each individual case, that we will give only 
a few general suggestions. 

1. If the child is an excessive burden and a real menace, 
steps should be taken to have him committed to an institution. 
You may write to the office of the state board of education or to 
your supervisor for advice in regard to such steps. 

2. If the child is apparently "harmless" and can do a little 
work, the parents must be made to realize that the child will 
probably always lack the judgment to take entire care of himself, 
and that he should always be kept near friends and relatives who 
will guard him against pitfalls and dangers. A defective young 
man must not be permitted to tr}- to make his way in the world. 
A defective young woman should be guarded against every dan- 
ger. Neither, of course, should marry. 

3. The only hope of keeping a feebleminded person safe 
and happy outside of a colony or institution is to find the right 
kind of work for that person. Let the occupation be simple and 
let the worker be protected from dangers, and the problem is 
often solved. 

But if the parents are blind to the situation, and persist in 
hoping that the child will yet grow^ up and become independent, 
they are doomed to much worry and disappointment. A mentally 
deficient child lacks the capacity for normal independence and 
self-control. Under favorable, supervised conditions, he may 
when he is grown make his living, but he always needs some 
external support, some guidance. When a teacher can sym- 
pathetically help a parent to see the problem in its true light, she 
will be rendering a service not only to the child and to the family, 
but also to the state of which she is a public servant. 



21 



PART II 



A mental classification of children and illustrative 
case studies of deficient pupils 



22 



Types of deficient school children 

For the convenience of the reader we insert a tabular 
psychological classification of children, which furnishes a bird's- 
e_ve summary of some of the main facts. As a simple standard 
of reference for the teacher, we also add a few case studies oi 
school children illustrating different types of mentality. Three 
girls, Harriet, Sarah, Helen, representing respectively low grade 
deficiency, dullness, and mental superiority are briefly described, 
and specimens of their writing and drawing are shown. 

Following this, is a comj^arative description of three 
brothers, who are in the same puljlic school, who are of exactly 
the same Binet age, who have substantially the same school at- 
tainments, but who represent because of their differences in 
chronological age, three descending degrees of mental de- 
ficiency. These boys, of course, belong to the hereditary type 
of mental deficiency. 

A few samples of their school work and mental output are 
shown in the illustrations. Each boy was able to write without 
assistance a sentence stating his approximate age. Below this 
sentence is reproduced a "letter" telling "\\'hat I did on last 
Saturday." The drawings portray a house, a man and tree. The 
circle represents the results of the Ball and Field Test, an inter- 
esting intelligence test, which is embodied in the Stanford Re- 
vision of the Binet measuring scale. Briefly, we said to each 
child, "Let us suppose that your ball has been lost in this round 
field. You have no idea what part of the field it is in ; but you 
know it is there somewhere. Now take this pencil and begin at 
the gate, and mark out a path to show me how you would hunt 
for the ball, so as to be sure not to miss it." This test demands 
a little practical judgment on the part of the child. We consider 
that a child fails, if he cannot comprehend the instructions. Such 
was the case with Harriet. The three brothers grasped the in- 
structions but failed to show any definite plan in carrying out the 
search for the ball. At the mental level of eight years we expect 
evidence of at least a little foresight, an inferior plan of search. 
Sarah, the dull girl, made a path around the margin of the field, 
an inferior plan ; while a normal or superior girl of twelve like 
Helen, meets the logical rec^uirements of the problem, with a su- 
perior plan of search, which covers the whole field with a spiral 
or fan shaped path. 

23 



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Three Grades of r\[i-:NTAi.iTv 

The drawings are by Harriet, age ii. IQ4.S. Mentall.v Deficient. 
(Kindergarten) 

The letter to Uncle William is by Sarah, age i4,IQ75. Dull. (Grade \'I) 
The other letter is by Helen, age 12, IQi,^7, Superior. (Grade Vni> 



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26 



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28 



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By Simon, Aye ii, Mental Age 6. IQ54. 
A. .S'ifd' ///r /?y//^' /'(PI', written from dictation. B. Spelling of (/(^i,^- and //f/'i^. C. Copy 
of a square. D. Copy of a diamond. E. Example in multiplication. F. ''History Facts,"' 
written without copy or help. 



29 



Harriet^ /. 0. 43 

Here is a girl whom we first examined four years ago. She 
was then seven years old, and although she had been in the kin- 
dergarten for two years, she was not ready for promotion into 
the first grade. And the sad fact of the matter is, she never will 
be ready. She is now eleven years old but cannot be taught the 
first rudiments of reading and writing and number. At the age 
of seven she could not count four pennies ; she can do so now 
in a rather mechanical manner, but she has no clear concept of 
even the number four. As for writing, she is still in the scribble 
stage. In 1914 she made the scrawl shown in figure to represent a 
dolly. In 19 18 she is unable to draw a steady straight line, and 
cannot make a cross mark even when shown a model. 

All of this tends to prove that her mental development has 
been practically at a standstill ; and that six years of public 
school life have had little effect upon her intelligence. This is 
very neatly corroborated by the records of our two mental exam- 
inations. In 1914 her mental age was exactly 3 years ; in 1918 it 
was exactly four years by the same tests. It has taken her four 
years to make one year of normal intelligence progress as meas- 
ured by these tests. Evidently she has not "outgrown" her de- 
ficiency as her mother hoped she would. Nor has she de- 
teriorated. She. has just about held her own; for her I. O. (in- 
telligence c|uotient) in 1914 was 43 and now it is 37. a very close 
correspondence. 

What can Harriet do which she could not do four years 
ago? She can give an acceptable definition of a chair and a 
table ; she can tell you what one must do when cold or hungry ; 
she can match a few simple geometrical forms; she can tell us 
whether she is a girl or a boy. But she cannot yet give us the 
names of colors, or of familiar coins, nor distinguish between 
right and left. Why does she seem so much more deficient than 
she did when she was in the kindergarten ? Simply because she 
is older. While she was a mere child many allowances were 
made for her; now more is expected; but relatively (as shown 
by the I. O.) she was about as defective in 1914 as in 1918. 

This case is, therefore, instructive because it shows how im- 
portant is the ratio between mental age and chronological age. 
We can never make a satisfactory estimate of a child's intelli- 



30 



gence calibre unless both standards are taken into account. 
Harriet's case also illustrates the fact that even children of im- 
becile grade are able to go to school, and that they can l)e main- 
tained there if we make proper provision for them. Many, how- 
ever, would consider her an institutional case because she is even 
at best a very difficult child to manage, and does not get i)roper 
chaperonage to and from school, Most deficient school children 
are morons, similar to the type described further on ; and a great 
deal can be done for them in the public school, even outside of a 
special class. 

Sarah, I. 0. /^ 

Sarah is physically a well developed girl ; she makes a fairly 
pleasing impression, though she is somewhat slow and awkward 
in her movements, and has a reputation of being rather slovenl}-. 
She is fourteen years old and it is evident from her school work 
that she is not very bright. She is in the sixth grade and is there- 
fore retarded about two years. The intelligence tests show even 
more retardation, for she earns a score of little over ten years. 
She is slow in her responses and never brilliant ; however she 
makes no absurd replies, and shows a mild sense of humor, 
which speaks well for her. \\'e know nothing in her history 
which proves serious lack of good judgment. Though her school 
work is only passable, it is evidently more than the product of 
mechanical drill. The total impression is that Sarah is simply a 
slow, dull girl. In sDite of her marked retardation, we would not 
consider her deficient. She has definite limitations, and should 
not be considered a candidate for higher, academic education. It 
is her modest ambition to become a seamstress : and in all prob- 
ability she will succeed, independent of external support. We 
anticipate that she will be able to shift for herself, and show 
ordinary prudence and good judgment. Therefore, we classify 
this girl on the normal side of the borderline. — dull. l)ut not 
deficient. 

Helen, I. 0. 137 

Helen makes no doubtful or borderline impression. Intelli- 
gence shines in her features ; as it shines in her school record and 
in her responses to the psychological test. She mentally outranks 
all her schoolmates manv of whom are a few vears older. She 



has an intelligence quotient almost thrice that of Harriet, and 
almost twice that of Sarah. Helen is only twelve years old; 
but she is in the eighth grade, and her mental age is about i6. 
Even so, she may be somewhat retarded, pedagogically ; for she 
has been mentally ready for high school w^ork for a year or more. 
Her language reflects her mental maturity. She has a vocabulary 
of over 10,000 words, almost that of an average adult ; and this 
is particularly interesting because she has had a very unfavor- 
able homelife. Her homelife has been so adverse tha if she were 
dull (like Sarah) we might have been tempted to explain her 
dullness by these home conditions. This would have been poor 
logic, for intelligence calibre is primarily a matter of inheritance. 

Helen freely uses such words as "depose" and "com- 
passion." Asked to state the difference betwen character and 
reputation, she instantaneously replied with Napoleonic pre- 
cision and succinctness. Once hearing seven digits pronounced 
at the rate of one per second, she can repeat them backwards. In 
five seconds she solved an arithmetic problem which fourteen 
year children often take a minute to work out. 

So far as intellect is concerned, this girl will surely be able 
to meet the ordinary demands of life, without external support. 
She is not only normal ; she is superior, and as a matter of 
justice and conservation she deserves superior educational ad- 
vantages. 

Three brotJiers, mental age 7 

We discuss these three children together, because mentally 
there happens to be a remarkable similarity between them. This 
similarity emphasizes certain important dift'erences. Almost to a 
detail, they pass and fail the same tests in the measuring scale 
of intelligence ; and their responses are much alike in quality. 
This is suggested by the samples of school work shown in the 
illustration. It is also shown in the estimates which the teachers 
made of their school ability. In reading, writing, arithmetic and 
spelling they were rated at second or in most cases third grade 
ability. Have they all become permanently arrested just below 
the level represented by fourth grade school work? 

Let us see. Andrew is ten years old. He is doing passable 
third grade work in all his subjects. This is not a serious re- 



32 



tardation ; but by tbe intenigence tests, be is at tbe seven year 
leveb and bis intelbgence quotient is only 71. Tbis is not very 
reassuring; ]:)articularly under all tbe circumstances. He does 
not sbow normal grasji of his scbool work ; and bis teacber sus- 
pects tbat be is going to bave great difficulty in tbe fourtb grade. 
If he becomes stranded there, we shall be forced to conclude tbat 
he is probably rlehcient ; though at present he is both absolutely 
and relatively tbe brighest of tbe three boys. \\'e believe that be 
is near tbe limits of bis mental development, that tbe next five 
years will accentuate his deficiency, and that he will not rise to 
the eleven or twelve year mental level. We think, however, tbat 
at his present age he should be given every advantage in his 
scbool work ; but vocational and hand work are already indicated 
in his case. 

Elmer and Amos are decidedly inferior to Andrew, and un- 
questionably deficient. By mental age these three brothers are 
identical, but not by intelligence quotient. Andrew with an I. Q. 
of 71 is near tbe borderline and at least a high grade moron : 
Elmer being twelve years old has an I. Q. of 64 and is much 
more subnormal ; Amos being over thirteen years old has an I. 
Q. of 54, and is a low grade moron. Elmer and Amos can never 
do satisfactory fourtb grade work, if they remain in school all 
their lives. Much drilling has given them a little facility in add- 
ing and multiplying and in reading. In some processes they are 
even superior to their brighter brother, Andrew ; but tbat is due 
simply to mechanical drill and repetition; and not to real su- 
periority. INIucb of their present school ability is absolutely use- 
less, and it probably has bad no strengthening etlect on their 
minds. Their information is wofully meagre. They do not know 
where leather comes from or why we celebrate tbe fourtb of 
July. Asked who Abraham Lincoln was ; they both paused a 
long time in apparent reflection. Finally Elmer said, "He was a 
man." Amos said he knew tbat, and added. "He was a poor boy 
who got rich." 

Tbe children bad gone to school for years. Do not their 
replies sbow the futility of teaching them academic abstractions? 
What they and the legion they represent, need is training along 
concrete, practical, and vocational lines. 



33 



Simon, I. O. 54 

On looking at the drawings and the written school work 
of Simon, age eleven, one can hardly believe that this boy is 
really only a little more than a high grade imbecile. His mental 
ag-e is six, and on the intelligence scale his rank is that of a k w 
grade moron. He is an instructive case for the teacher who is 
inclined to place too much importance upon mechanical drill 
and written work. Here we have a boy who can not tie his 
shoe strings, but who can write out a long list of history facts 
Avithout making scarcely a mistake. Here is a boy who can 
not discriminate between left and right, who can not tell time, 
who would sooner have a nickel than a dime, who thinks that 
leather grows on trees, — yet he can write without any copy 
historical statements about Columbus, ^Magellan, the Pilgrims 
and Amerigo \'espucci. How can we explain this amazing 
situation? 

One word holds the key to the explanation, and that word 
is memory. [Memory as, Binet reminded us, is the great simu- 
lator of intelligence ; but it is never a complete equivalent or 
even a trustworthy symptom of intelligence. Practice so thor- 
oughl}^ familiarized Simon with the written history facts that 
after a while the teacher could take the chart away and still the 
boy was able to write out the sentences. Put a hungry white 
rat into a complicated maze and after repeated trials it will 
learn the correct j^ath and easily find its way out. The creature 
memorizes the maze ; but it is a mechanical, motor kind of 
memory. In a similar way Simon acquired the motor associa- 
tions which result in his surprising ability to set down historical 
facts. 

That there was no true perception of these facts was 
prettily demonstrated by a conversation I had with him, some- 
what as follows: "\Mio was Christoioher Columbus?" I asked. 
There was no reply. The cuiestion proved to be too abstract. 
"What did Christopher do?" Still no answer. Finally I _put it 
this way: "\\^ho discovered America?" and received the re- 
sponse, "ChristoiDher Columbus." I very much doubt, however, 
that Simon even knows that Christopher Columbus was a man. 
It is easy enough to say that he ought to know ; but it is better 

34 



to ])Osses.s one's patience because all that we are sure that he 
does know is the motor trick of writing out the " history facts." 
One of Simon's teachers lost her patience because of his 
persistent refusal to recite. He was inveterately silent ; and be- 
cause he was sometimes heard to talk on the playground, it be- 
gan to look to the teacher as though the boy W'as simply ob- 
stinate in his silence at lessons. She summoned his father to 
school, one day, and Simon was rather severely disciplined for 
his refusal to recite, \\liat a comic tragedy it must have been 
when poor Simon was scolded, upraided and finally beaten, be- 
cause he would not recite ! Like reproving a blind man be- 
cause he will not see ! Although there is some timidity in this 
boy he is very good hearted, and his silence was chiefly due to 
a consistent lack of ideas and of comprehension. 

This story contains a good deal of psychology, both ap- 
plied and mis-ai)i)lie(l. It warns us to be conservative in labelling 
any i^upil stubborn, lazy, wilful. Many a deficient child has 
been unjustly described by such adjectives. Sometimes, to be 
sure, the feebleminded are temporarily obstinate, but even then, 
it is often an instinctive resistance against an educational treat- 
ment for which they are not fitted. In such cases their obstinacy 
is a self j^rotective reaction against the wrong thing and a re- 
minder of the fact that we ought to modify our program and 
our i^edagogical tactics. In general we may say, the special child 
needs a special program. 



35 



PART III 



Practical suggestions 

for 

A special program for the deficient chil( 



m 



Practical suggestions for a special program for the deficient child 

If it is impossible for the teacher to put her deficient pupil 
into a special class, let her make the best of the situation and de- 
vise for him a special program. Under favorable conditions this 
special program may be almost as beneficial for him as a special 
classroom. The teacher can afford to give him at least some in- 
dividual attention ; and as already suggested let her enlist the aid 
of the brighter pupils, or even older schoolmates in the upper 
grades. Naturally the deficient pupil will be permitted to share 
in the regtilar school work, whenever he is at all fitted to do so ; 
but during certain periods of the day he should be occupied along 
special lines particularly suited to him. Gradually the teacher 
should develop for him a special program or schedule of ac- 
tivities which will keep him busy and contented during the school 
day. Concrete suggestions for the making out of such a schedule 
will now be given. These suggestions must of course be adapted 
to each individual case ; and it is hoped that the teacher will sup- 
plement them with ideas altogether her own. 

The three R's 

We will begin with the 3 R's ; but not because they are the 
most important. They are not. It might even be said that a 
feebleminded child is one who cannot be taught the 3 R's with 
any marked advantage to himself or to society. It has been sug- 
gested that the 3 R's constitute the fads and frills in the educa- 
tion of the mentally deficient. This is not altogether true. Some 
high grade children learn to write a simple letter, and sometimes 
they put this ability to good use. Some learn to read the news- 
papers sufficiently to look up Help Wanted ads when they are 
out of a job ; and they have occasion to make use of some of their 
arithmetic in handling their simple financial aftairs. But after 
making a few allowances like this, there is little to be said for the 
practical importance of "the fundamentals"; for the simple rea- 
son that they are not fundamental in the training of the mentally 
deficient. They are secondary "cultural" subjects. 

However, they are convenient stibjects to teach ; they furnish 
occupation and often no little enjoyment to the children. If a 
child will learn to take plesaure even in the simplest reading. 

37 



that is enough to justify the teaching. Furthermore even a shght 
abihty in reading and writing serves to make the child seem more 
hke other children ; and when he is a high grade deficient, he 
should be given an opportunity to show how much he can master. 
For all these reasons the 3 R's may find a place on the special 
program of the deficient child; but the teacher should not go to 
undue lengths in teaching these academic subjects. 

When a child can do no more than scribble, when he can- 
not even make a good kindergarten drawing of a house, do not 
go to extremes to teach him penmanship. And if a child is so 
deficient that he ordinarily talks only in phrases and short sen- 
tences ; and if, after months in the schoolroom he is unable to 
recognize a few primer words, do not worry about your failure 
to teach him to read. He probably needs other kinds of instruc- 
tion much more. I have known conscientious teachers to blame 
themselves unjustly for failures which were due to the sheer in- 
capacity of the pupil. 

In arithmetic, when it can be taught at all, there is a happy 
mean. Abstract number relations are beyond the feebleminded ; 
and many of the processes which you can teach by dint of drill 
will be pure acquisitions of memory, and will never be applied. 
But there are concrete relations which are worth teaching, by 
means of yard stick, foot rule, quart and pint measure, cloth, 
paper, sand, water, coins, etc. Ideas of near and far, short and 
long, longer, shorter, one half, one ciuarter, inch, foot, ten cents, 
twenty-five cents, pound, diameter, circumference, etc., etc., can 
be taught by the well known methods of concrete arithmetic. It 
is well to keep most of the work on this concrete level. Be con- 
tent with a few fundamentals of every day importance like the 
values of coins, making change, estimating and measuring di- 
mensions, the length of a foot, one half, one third, one fourth, 
the use of a ruler, telling time, writing numbers, and simple 
problems. 

^ Drawing 

This is an excellent form of busy work for a deficient child. 
Give him abundant paper eight by ten inches or larger in size ; 
give him a supply of colored crayons and let him draw by the 
hour, a half hour if he is interested. Wrapping paper may be 
economically used. Magazine advertisements to color ofifer 



abundant material. This kind of work at least helps to keep the 
child occupied and interested. It has educational values beside. 
Any form of drawing or water color work, tracing, copying, etc., 
may be used. Some children like to use a ruler and a compass, 
and stiff j^ieces of cardboard cut into various shapes ; with these 
they construct geometric designs which they hll in with color. 
Drawing has this advantage, that all grades of children can en- 
■ gage in it to some extent. 

Busy-work 

For a lower grade child who has difficulty in doing any 
ordinary school work whatever, the teacher must provide vari- 
ous forms of "busy work." It is better that such a child put 
pegs in a peg board and pull them out and put them in again and 
again, than that he should sit idle or disturb other children. 
Have him paste, cut, sort, prick, match, fold, — anything to keep 
him occupied. Busy work is often educative, it is always better 
than neglect or a futile eft'ort to make the child join in regular 
class work. The teacher will have to make the plans and take 
the initiative in starting this work, but once it is started a monitor 
pupil, chosen from the brighter, older children, can easily keep 
it going and can add to it. !Make it a point to get these bright 
children to make suggestions and to assist in every way possible. 
Following are some concrete suggestions as to available kinds of 
busy work. There are many others which the teacher herself 
should invent. 

1. Stringing beads. Beads may be supplied or made. 
Straws, circles, acorns, rose hips, peas are available. 

2. Making paper chains. Various sizes, colors, and ar- 
rangements. 

3. Sorting colors (worsted, paper, cloth, etc). 

4. Sorting sizes (cards, sticks). 

5. Outlining simple drawings, and designs with lentils 
squash or melon seeds. The drawings are placed flat on the desk 
and the child overlays the outlines. 

6. Sorting lengths (strings, etc., of various lengths). 

7. Weaving with oilcloth or linen mats an.d colored splints, 
and with pa])er mats. 



39 



8. Sewing cards of simple design. 

9. Covering picture frames (of cardboard) with worsted 
or raffia (buttonhole stitch). 

10. Paper cutting — Have the child cut out designs from 
wall paper, advertisements from magazines, and human figures 
from fashion books. 

11. Tracing and coloring from large patterns. 

12. Pasting colored forms in border designs. 

13. Sewing large buttons on bright material, with colored 
thread. 

14. Spool knitting. 

15. Modelling with clay, sand, plasticene. 

16. Making scrapbooks.. Pasting pictures into large and 
small scrapbooks is an excellent form of past time work. 

17. All forms of paper work. Free cutting, cutting to out- 
line, paper mat weaving, paper flowers, paper dolls, transparen- 
cies, silhouettes, holiday tokens, paper tearing, paper folding, etc. 
(see Reference No. 8 in Book list). 

Handicraft and vocational zvork 

Here is the teacher's greatest opportunity. It may seem 
rather hopeless to undertake vocational work for the particular 
benefit of one or two children, in a room with screwed down 
seats, and in a day largely devoted to the task of teaching the 
academic subjects. But the situation is not as hopeless as it 
looks. There is a way when there is a will. In the first place 
there are many forms of vocational activity which can be carried 
out as seat work in an ordinary desk. In the second place, it 
would really be an excellent thing if an enterprising teacher put 
a work table in the corner of the room, or had her larger boys 
make a small work bench with a vise or a loom for schoolroom 
use. The fact that the normal children would sometimes use this 
table or bench for their own interests would certainly not be an 
objection. Nothing will make the deficient child so happy as vo- 
cational work, nothing will better train and discipline him. While 
it will take a little resourcefulness, planning and courage on the 
part of the teacher to get vocational work started, the effort will 



40 



be repaid; because the defective child will be less of burden. 
And again, when once the work is started the older children can 
help a great deal to keep it going. In fact in some schools a 
committee of older children could be enlisted and take most of 
the responsibility. In these days we do not have to justify such 
a suggestion ; because it is recognized that such social coopera- 
tion and helpfulness in the schoolroom are the best kind of edu- 
cation for all concerned. The control of the great social problem 
of feeblemindedness is a cjuestion of applied sociology. And it 
is chiefly a vocational problem. Why not take the first steps to- 
ward this control in the schoolroom ; and let future citizens assist 
where they can ? 

We make below a rather extended list of suggestions con- 
cerning forms and methods of vocational work; because this 
work otlters the largest i:)ossibilities. Some suggestions are very 
readily put into practice ; others will require a little scheming and 
a slight expense; but all of them are workable even under rural 
school conditions. The teacher who becomes interested in a par- 
ticular line of work like basketry or weaving will get assistance 
from the handbooks mentioned at the end of this manual. In- 
stead of trying to cover too many occupational activities, the 
teacher will do well to single out a few, best adapted to her 
children and to the circumstances. 

Kiiitliiig 

This is a silent, simple and very useful form of handwork 
to ado])t. Children with only a six or seven year old intelligence 
can knit ; and recent experiences with Red Cross work have 
shown that knitting can easily be introduced into the schoolroom. 
The following articles can be made : muffler, wristlet, caps, socks, 
mittens, doll's garments, afghan, wash glove, face cloth, cover 
for baby's ball, etc. Simple arrangements can often be made for 
the sale of articles, to at least repay the cost of materials. 

S/^ooI kitittiiif/ 

This form of toy knitting is adapted even to children of low 
grade deficiency, and is excellent in many cases. Reins for play- 
ing horse (colored or uncolored) are favorite articles of manu- 



41 



facture by this method. Mats, hot plate mats, and necklaces o£ 
Dexter cotton No. 6 can be made by the same method (see 
Reference No. 8). 

Crocheting 

This is more difficult than knitting, but may be adapted to 
middle and high grade children. Jute, Germantown, raffia twine, 
carpet warp and crochet cotton may be used. The coarser mate- 
rial, like carpet warp or strips of cotton an inch or two in width, 
is usually preferable. Large wooden hooks may then be used; 
and rugs, knitting bags, and book bags may then be made. 

Sezving 

This also is a most satisfactory form of handwork. An ex- 
cellent outline, explaining different kinds of stitches, and giving 
directions for making various articles is to be found in the 1917 
edition of Plans for Progress (pp. 1 15-137) published by the 
State board of education. Patterns, specifications, etc., are given 
for towels, bags, aprons, waists, underwear, bathrobe, blouses, 
pillowcases and dress skirts. SimjDle forms of sewing and easy 
problems may be adapted to low grade children. Cross stitching 
and darning designs are valuable. 

Rag carpet rugs 

This is an occupation, at once so simple, interesting and use- 
ful that we give directions in full. Any rural teacher can take 
advantage of the opportunty offered in making these old 
fashioned rugs. 

Let the children bring to school cast off clothing like under 
garments, stockings, dresses, coats and skirts. Let this material 
be cut or torn into strips by the deficient child, and have the 
strips of similar color sewn together, end to end ; roll the strips 
into balls. 

Take three of these balls and tie their three ends together, 
and have the child braid these strips tightly together. This 
braided material can then be sewed together and made into any 
shape of rug desired. If a round rug is desired, start with the end 
of a braid in the center and keep winding into a circle or spiral. 



42 



The braids should be sewed so that both sides of the rug may be 
used. If a square rug is desired, start in the center and shape in 
square fashion. If an oval rug is desired, start at one side of 
the center and lay the first coils of braid in i:)arallel straight lines, 
gradually working to the oval shaj^e. 

IP'caz'iiig 

Here is a held for work of many varieties. Small handlooms 
may be obtained ; or may be improvised. A large frame for 
shawl making could be made by a bright boy under direction. 
Large and small mats, rugs and holders may be woven. Warp 
thread, jute, and cotton or woolen strips may be used as mate- 
rials. "Old knit underclothing is easily dyed and makes excellent 
rugs." Hooked rugs may be made on a burlap foundation ; and 
double braided rugs on wooden looms. Rag carpet may also be 
woven. 

Cord zi'ork 

This is adapted to dilTerent grades of children and may be 
attempted on either a small or large scale. Bracelets, doll's cur- 
tains, shopping bags, watch fobs, hammocks may be mentioned. 

Basketry 

If the teacher has had experience in this handicraft or will 
teach it to herself through one of the many practical handbooks, 
she will find it an interesting occupation to introduce. Baskets 
may be made of reed, or of reed or rope foundation with raffia. 
Rope or twine has many advantages for children. Braided native 
materials may also be used, like corn husks, willow, cat-tails. 

Raffia work 

Rafiha is a strong, pliable grass, which may be obtained either 
in natural or dyed colors. It lends itself to many uses besides 
basketry ; for it may be wound, woven, knitted or braided into 
various articles like belts, picture frames, napkin rings, sewing 
bags, etc. 



43 



Woodzvork 

The opportunities here are so many that it is hardly necessary 
to detail them. If the teacher is ready to secure a few necessary 
tools, and with the cooperation of some of the older boys (or 
girls) will put up a simple bench in the shed, basement or even 
in the corner of her schoolroom ; many kinds of woodwork will 
suggest themselves. It is not necessary for the teacher to be a 
carpenter or a cabinet maker ; nor is it necessary to have a large 
fund for materials. Old boxes and odds and ends of lumber can 
be utilized. Stools, stands, shelves, pencil racks, bird houses, — 
many simple things for the school or the home can be made. The 
assistance of "monitor pupils" will be particularly helpful, and 
relieve the teacher. 

Coping sazv zuork 

This form of woodwork is peculiarly fitted to schoolroom 
conditions and can be easily adapted to the needs of even rather 
low grade children. The equipment and materials are inexpen- 
sive ; a regular work bench may be dispensed with ; and the 
work is clean. An unlimited variety of articles can be made, 
presenting many degrees of difficulty to the child. Picture 
puzzles (jig saw puzzles), are a favorite product. Dissected maps 
can be made and used by the classes in geography. Indeed, much 
of the handwork suggested can be correlated with the regular 
school work of the normal children. The benefits are not limited 
to the deficient child. 

Special occupations 

There is a group of occupations, which while not altogether 
impractical in the ordinary schoolroom, require a little extra 
equipment and training on the part of the teacher. Their value 
in a special classroom has already been demonstrated ; and under 
certain circumstances the regular teacher may find it well to 
consider one or more of them. Handbooks giving detailed direc- 
tions may be secured. Such occupations are brush-making ; chair 
caning; leather work; metal work; cobbling; toymaking. 

Home and scliool chores 

Whenever possible the deficient child should be taught to do 
errands and small tasks. This is good training for him, makes 



44 



him more useful and promotes his self-respect. At school he 
may be allowed to sweep and scrub the floors, dust, clean the 
woodwork, clean the windows, fill the woodbox, black the stove, 
collect the papers, sharpen the pencils, rake the yard. This 
furnishes such excellent vocational training that he may well be 
given the opportunity to clean the windows, etc., even oftener 
than is absolutely necessary. 

Home chores are equally important, and parents should be 
encouraged to assign regular definite tasks in the kitchen, bed- 
room, farm and shop. As already suggested, teachers shovild 
point out to parents the value of such work. The deficient child 
should perform a certain number of these chores, even if it is 
more convenient that they be attended to by some one else. As 
the child grows older and no longer can get any benefit out of 
the academic work of the school, the advisability of his spending 
at least a half of each day in helping at home may well be con- 
sidered. It should always be remembered that the right kind of 
work trains him in just those habits which he most needs ; and 
that reading and arithmetic have no power to strengthen his 
mind. 

Physical education 

This is important, because motor or muscle training is 
fundamental to other forms of training. Good posture, good 
step, rhythm, quickness in muscular response, will improve the 
general demeanor of the deficient child and help to make him 
more alert. Therefore, any kind of setting-up exercises, march- 
ing, calisthenics, and special physical exercises demanding motor 
balance and control will have a value. Dancing and music are 
often peculiarly eftective. Games are beneficial both for mental 
and physical reasons. So far as practical, the deficient child 
should be permitted to join in the games and physical exercise 
of the normal children. If some of these children are made to 
take a responsible interest, they will arrange and adapt games 
for the benefit of the deficient child. 

Personal habits 

Simple matters which often take care of themselves in 
normal children, must be given special attention in the deficient 



45 



child. His everyday personal habits are too important to be 
neglected. While some of these things depend on the home, the 
teacher can do a great deal to bring them up to standard. General 
deportment, obedience, saying good morning, thank you, if you 
please, etc., washing himself, tying his necktie and shoestrings, 
keeping himself neat, shaking hands, showing signs of respect, — 
all the little manners and courtesies of everyday life are im- 
portant, because taken altogether they will do more than anything 
else to make the child like other children. They are the true 
fundamentals in the edvication of the deficient child. Do not be 
too zealous to teach him reading, when he does not know how 
to use a handkerchief, and does not clean his nose. 

A final word to the teacher 

While we appreciate that many of the above suggestions 
have no application to her particular problem, we hope that they 
are numerous enough so that she can undertake to work out a 
special program for her deficient pupil. She can start by giving 
him at least one period of special seatwork, and then she can 
gradually add activities to this (often with the aid of her bright 
pupils) until she will have established a new schedule for him. 
If she has any peculiar difficulties, we suggest that she address a 
question to her supervisor or to the ofiiice of the state board of 
education. There is a department in this office which is anxious 
to help her. In special cases wdiere a psychological examination 
of a child is desired by the teacher or the parent, this can also 
be arranged for through your supervisor. On the next page 
we append a list of books which contain helpful information. 

We wish to repeat that wherever possible the teacher 
should make the deficient child "a family pYoblem" in the 
solution of which the older and brighter pupils may share. 
Let her parcel out some of the minor responsibilities to these 
pupils, and soon she will find that the special program 
maintains itself and grows in possibilities. A little initiative 
on the part of the teacher, combined with ingenuity and interest 
will go a long way toward improving the status of the deficient 
school child. 



46 



SELECTED BOOK LIST 

1. Anderson, Meta. Education of Defectives in the Public 

Schools. World Book Co., Yonkers. 1917. 

2. Bancroft, Jessie H. Games for Playground. Home, School 

and Gymnasium. ■MacMillan Co., X. Y. 

3. Gilnian, INIary L. and Williams, Elizabeth. Seatwork and 

Industrial Occupations. AIac3>lillan Co., N. Y. 1913. 

4. Jessiip and Logue. Handicraft Book. 

5. Johnson, George E. Toys and Toymakiiuj. Longmans, 

Green &- Co., N. Y. 1912. 

6. Plaisted, Laura L. Handwork in Early Education. Ox- 

ford LTniversity Press, Oxford. 1913. 

7. Sage, Elizabeth and Cooler, Ana AL Occupations for 

little Eingers. Scribners, N. Y. 1905. 

(This book contains many practical suggestions and 

helpful illustrations.) 

8. Special Class Teachers of Boston. The Boston Way. 

The Rumford Press, Concord, N. PL 1917. 
(This book is the united work of the special class 
teachers of Boston and an outline of their united ex- 
perience. It can be highly recommended. The treat- 
ment is concrete and practical. 

9. Tinslev. Laura R. Practical and Artistic Basketry. 

10. Weaver, Emily. Paper and Scissors in tJie Schoolroom. 

11. White, Alarv. Hon' to make Baskets. 



4.1 



